Processing-structure-property relationships in (TPE-E) nanocomposites Research Proposal

Processing-structure-property relationships in (TPE-E) nanocomposites - Research Proposal Example Iwahori, Ishiwata and Ishikawa (2003) argue that an understanding of the basic physical relationship in nano scale structural variables and micro scale properties of polymer nanocomposites is very important in this study. The development of polymer nanocomposites optimally using carbon nanotube and carbon nano fibre requires full comprehension of the processing structure property relationships. Aims of the Research The aim of the research is to develop improved materials properties in TPE-E nanocomposites using the processing structure property relationships. The research will develop the following objectives which will be investigated: 1. To optimally disperse the nanofillers into the TPE-E via melt processing and reactive extrusion (Nanocomposite processing). 2. To develop a complete understanding of thee processing morphology properties in the nanocomposite system, most importantly the interplay between TPE-E nanophase domains and an engineered low and high aspect ratio nanofiller s (morphology and properties) 3. To comprehensively determine the mechanical and electrical performance of these nanocomposites. Literature Review According to Kotsilkova (2005) and Dobrzai (2002), an overview of the synthesis and characterization methods of nanocomposite is important in clay layer orientation and its dispersion in various nanocomposites. Many previous researches have tried to relate the clay orientation to the enhancement of materials properties from a qualitative viewpoint. Quantitative studies are may be limited because of lack of techniques to quantitatively determine the three dimensional orientation of structures in nanocomposites. In one of the recent developed techniques of determining the three dimensional orientation, the effect of compatibilizer concentration upon the orientation and dispersion of structures in polyethylene nanocomposite films was found to be thickness. An increase in concentration showed a corresponding decrease in orientation of clay la yer along the thickness of the film (Bevis 1999; Suprakas, Kazuaki & Masami 2003; Liu, Hoa & Pugh 2004). Other researchers have explored ways of using commercially available products to create new materials by synthesising TPE-E to register a wide range of property improvements. The TPE-E synthesis may comprise melt compounding and reactive extrusion using organic clays as nanofillers. Hybrid composition morphology within nanocomposites, when treated in various processes, demonstrates the maximum range of properties of materials. The various methods of attaining a wide range of property enhancements are the organo clay nanofiller surface modification, additional processing parameter and the TPE-E hard and soft segment composition ratio together with the organ clay filler aspect. These material properties are governed by the manipulation of these variables and assessing the sizes of intercalate molecules (Laird & Fleming 1999; Mani et al. 2005). Colbert and Smalley (2002) argue that many other studies have focused on the microstructure processing and property relationships, which have helped in knowledge development and comprehensive understanding of these processes to develop more innovative products both for personal and commercial purposes. Hytrel products

International airline industry with a particular focus on British Essay

International airline industry with a particular focus on British Airways - Essay Example It can be seen that the European airline industry has evolved from being dominated by large, business class air carriers to one which is increasingly controlled by the proliferation of low cost airlines. The wide popularity and acceptance of budget air travel which has significantly increased air traffic and gave a boost to the tourism industry has began putting pressure on large airlines to create their own low profile brand in order to regain their market shares. The emergence of budget airlines is directly attributed to the transformation of the global business environment. The major drivers which facilitated this trend are: the deregulation of the European air travel sector; the establishment of the European Union; the 9/11 tragedy; the rapid technological advancement; and change in customers' lifestyle and preferences. It is irrefutable that the deregulation of the European airline industry primarily contributed to the rise of low cost carriers. It can be recalled that deregulation has lowered the barrier to entry in the industry as well as enhanced the competitiveness of the players which are previously receiving subsidy from the government. This, in turn, largely contributes to the cost efficiency of airline operators allowing them to charge lower prices to passengers. The establishment of the European Union affects the airline industry has the same effect like the deregulation of the sector. This has opened up markets and lowered opera ting costs, encouraging the proliferation of low cost carriers (Sorensen 2006). The 9/11 tragedy which left terror worldwide has also helped in lowering the cost of air travel in order to fill up empty seats in the airline. This is coupled by the public's preference of budget airlines since they want to maximize the value of their money in response to the economic recession. Lastly, technological advancement has significantly enhanced company's efficiency. It can be recalled that the internet technology has lowered the airline's costs in terms of booking and servicing customers by eliminating travel agent costs. This has paved way for huge costs savings which cut down the cost of airline operations (Sorensen 2006). 2. Conduct a PEST-analysis of the airline industry - for both the present and medium term (5 years) future. Once you complete Political, Economical, Societal and Technological analysis, chose one example from each heading and discuss how it will affect the industry in 5 years time. Political The operation of the European airline industry is strongly affected by the policies which are instituted by the government. The political issues which are affecting and are more likely to shape the sector are: European and international law on environmental laws and regulations (International Environment Law 2006); further integration with the European Union; harmonization of technical requirements and administrative procedures; and the tighter monetary policies which are currently adopted by each nation in order to maintain the amount of their currencies. Recognizing the need for sustainable development, it is expected that policy makers will be focusing on creating policies which are more focused on the preservation of the environment. It should be noted that right now, the European Environmental Law is gaining more

Mcdonalds Human Resource Management (HRM)

Mcdonalds Human Resource Management (HRM) In this report it has been analyzed and found out the kind of Human Resource management theories and techniques are in reality implemented or practiced by the McDonalds Human Resource Management. The field study it has done entails by visiting the HR office of the McDonalds located at the Notting Hill Gate, London. Throughout the visit it has been observed the all practices. It has been also observed the working culture and the motivating factors at the McDonalds and also the team work. Due to grading the Recruitment, Training, Business strategies and the Performance management. After analyzing the books and the website of McDonalds it is able to explain the theories of the Human Resource Management and also the some of the corporate values of the McDonalds. In the course of the study and the research It have found that the McDonalds process of recruiting the worker and staff and how they provide training to their employees. The success of the McDonalds is because of the employees an d the different market strategies so this assignment is to understand the HR Strategies of the McDonalds. The purpose of this study is to know the recruitment and selection process in detail and also about the training programme at McDonalds for their employees to achieve the objectives of the company. Here we also going to discuss the Business strategies used by the McDonalds to hold the better position in the market and the strategies used by McDonald have to respond the new competition in the market. The performance management system of McDonalds also contributes its efforts in achieving the aims; it contains the strategies to motivate the employees. COMPANY PROFILE McDonalds originated in California, USA, 1954. McDonalds Corporation along with its affiliates operates as a food service retailer worldwide. The franchises of the McDonalds operate the McDonalds restaurants that offer a variety of food items, soft drink, coffee, and other food and beverages. According to a survey it shows that as of December 31, 2009 the company runs or operates 32,480 restaurants in 117 countries and out of them 26,215 were operated by the franchisees and 6,265 were operated by the company. McDonalds corporation franchises and operates its restaurants in the food service industry. McDonalds supply the products to most of the McDonalds restaurants where McDonalds independently owned and operates distribution centres, which is approved by the company. Where the employee and personnel of restaurants are trained very well in the storage, preparation and handling of products and in the delivering the good customer services. In February 2009 the company sold its interest in REDBOX AUTOMATED RETAIL, LLC The franchises of McDonalds operates McDonalds restaurant in the food and service industry. These restaurants variety and yet limited value priced menu in more than 117 countries globally. Most of the restaurants are operated by the company or by the franchisees, under the franchise agreement franchisees are included and under license agreements foreign-affiliated markets and developmental licenses are included. Human Resources Strategies of McDonalds Recruitment As we know that McDonalds is the biggest family restaurants business in the world. To provide the best family restaurants experience by far is McDonalds vision. To achieve this we put people at the centre of everything we do and that goes for our employee as much as our customer. People perform well when they feel better in their job and McDonalds has recognised it so McDonalds go all out to create the right and good working environment for everyone. Thats a lot of people to consider which is why McDonalds strive to provide variety of rewards and benefits that suits all kind of lifestyles. McDonalds is successful in achieving the best working experience for their people; they aim to provide customer the restaurants experience. Employees working in the McDonalds they not only become the part of one of the largest global brands but also a constantly developing organisation that offers an environment of flexibility, equality, diversity and opportunity. Reflective of the society and communities in which McDonalds operate. In UK McDonalds offers a probably most diverse work in culture. The people come from all walks of life to McDonalds and they share a common approach i.e. a positive one. HIRE THE SMILE is the policy of the McDonalds when they hire the crew membe rs and this help to nurture a work force of employee with a positive approach and outlook, in return we earn cheerful and friendly atmosphere. McDonalds thinks that its not only just about hiring happy and cheerful people its about keep them smiling by doing everything. McDonalds offers rewards and benefits that fit in with their lifestyle, which so ever it may be whether they are a part-time employees working to fund their school and college education or Trainee Business Manager straight out of university. Recruitment and Selection at McDonalds Recruiting suitable applicants: Which ever post it may be whether employee wants to join as a crew member or a Trainee Business Manager, McDonalds always provide exceptional support, real progression opportunities, a range of excellent rewards and all potential associated with working for the McDonalds a worlds famous global brand. Crew Members The McDonalds has designed a three-step application process for potential crew member to make sure that they are right for everyone. The first phase of the application is an online; people go through an online process which contains some questions. If the candidate is successful in the first phase they send the invitation to the candidate for an interview with HR officer after that they send the successful candidate for (OJE) On Job Evaluation and for interview at the restaurants with manager. The On Job Evaluation is for serves two purpose one is that it helps an d gives the good opportunity to assess the candidates skill in customer services against what is needed to be a successful member of the McDonalds team and also allow the candidates to see that if McDonalds high energy environment suits their preferred style of working. This OJE process takes about 15 minutes and the candidate works at one of the customer facing areas and full instruction is given to candidate on what to do . In addition the candidates have and interview with the business manager and the whole process will take about 30 minutes for assessing the candidates. Crew Benefits: McDonalds provide 28 days paid holidays per annum. After three year service they provide free private health care. Stake holder pension scheme. Bonuses related to Restaurants performances. Provides vouchers of Argos, Thomas Cook, Debenhams, Marks Spencer and House of Fraser awarded at service milestones Annual pay reviews Great discounts, about  £13 at Alton Towers and at Thorpe Park Its about  £12 Saving of 50 per cent at LEGOLAND 10 per cent off at dress-for.com  £63 saving on special BSM learner starter pack 25% off many short breaks and holidays 65 per cent off in universal cycles. Welcome Meeting After completing all the application process and the candidates are selected and crew member have been hired they are called to attend the Welcome meeting at their chosen restaurants or a recruitment centre. In this meeting the inform and engage new starter for the one hour in this meeting. The meeting involves viewing a DVD which provides important information about the McDonalds and also allows for interaction between manger and the new starter. The second part is orientation which is compulsory its an online process which provides information regarding the Health n Safety test that the new starter has to complete in their own time. The beginning of the orientation starts with the tour of the store highlighting key health and safety and food safety procedures. And it is also recommended that it should be last for the first two ours of the shift. Trainee Business Manager A trainee business manager participates in an award-winning management training scheme and the business trainee manger is required to show strong leadership quality. It is not a small feet to a win a place on McDonalds management development programme. Its not a short term commitment but rather it represents a long- term career decision. McDonalds want make sure that the candidate and McDonalds are right for each other, therefore the candidates has to go through the four steps of selection process. The first step it is all about the screening process which ensures that candidates meet the basic criteria. The successful candidates are asked to complete the next step which contains the personality questionnaire the candidate has to complete it online. This will make sure that the candidate has the desired attributes and their preferred style of working suites. After that the next step is based on restaurants OJE or On Job Evaluation. The candidate will do real job for a day and learn what its really working in a McDonalds restaurants. After completing OJE process the final step is selection process i.e. an interview with the senior manager. First o f all the Trainee Business Manager has to complete an intensive 18 week Management Development programme. This programme will give the candidate thorough training in the business of McDonalds and also train the candidate regarding the commercial skill that are needed to bloom and develop into an effective assistant manager. Later an assistant manager can progress to become business manager or an operating consultant i.e. area manager depending on their desire to achieve. Benefits The candidates are provided with a package of professional rewards which includes a starting salary of up to  £21500 including London weighting. There is also potential of quarterly bonus within the week of joining. The candidate could be running their own restaurants under the three year and also earning a salary and package of  £45000. The successful candidates can expect additionally Holiday of 5 week per annum and it can be raised to 6 week from April 2009 Annual performance in relation of pay review Life assurance. Pension scheme After six months services they cover a private healthcare and also a company car or cash alternative. Home telephone bill assistance. For every 10 years of services there is a paid sabbatical leave of eight weeks. Training at McDonalds Includes complete development McDonalds constant success of is constructed on the highest principles of quality, delivery of services and cleanliness to customer in each of the McDonalds restaurants. These standards are achieved because of the well trained crew member and also well trained manager. The policy of McDonalds that provide the career opportunities that allows the workers to improve and develop their full potential. This policy programme for both crew and operation management, and a career advancement that enables a first job for the progression of the employees to the senior management position through merit based promotions. Around 55,000 employees are trained in McDonalds every year. McDonalds spends around  £10 million over on going employees training every year for providing people with valuable skill. McDonalds work experience is a foundation for future employability, mostly as the UK labour market continues to evolve. As there is increase in the demand of skilled employees, a job which offers an on-going training with a leading organisation is very best career investment. People from all over the world of life recognition of first job at McDonalds through having prepared them with ingredients of success. Staff Training Staff training programme at the McDonalds is an on the job professional experience that make other learn the skills transferable to other industries. In McDonalds the entire new employee begins their experience with an induction into the company. Here the trainers work together shoulder-to-shoulder with other trainees where they absorb the operation skills for running the each and every 11 workstations in every restaurant, from front counter to grill area. Each and every employee learns to operate contemporary food service equipment, gaining knowledge of McDonalds operational procedure. Every manuals and video tapes cover every detail, starting from how to prepare a big Mac, and they also teach that how to deliver exceptional services to customers. Not only this employees also learn how to train and supervise other people. The people who first time employed in McDonalds, McDonalds are an important mentor who teaches the interpersonal and organisational skill which is important for performing effectively on any job. The business of McDonalds demands effective teamwork, discipline and responsibility. The result of McDonalds experience is in improving self-confidence and communication skill and McDonalds stresses on customer care and attitude where organisation experts known as an essential element for business success. Business strategies of McDonalds As we know that McDonalds is the most successful fast food chain in the world. In the success of the McDonalds we may possibly easily identify number of successful business strategy operations. Time to time McDonalds enhances its own brand imagine with the help of different social activities and sponsors the special events and sports like as a main sponsor of the world cup since 1994 and the champions league football in England from 1996 to 2000. The reason of the McDonalds success is that McDonalds implements many strategies like Porters Competitive strategies model that includes differentiation and low cost leadership or miles n snows strategy typology which describe prospector, defender, reactor and analyser strategy. Its obvious that McDonalds has to implement or choose the most appropriate strategy for its success. How McDonalds implements its business strategies? The business structure of McDonalds is totally based upon a geographic structure. Because when we access their website they ask the person to choose their country that they are interested in. In fact in the five geographical divisions McDonalds has divided its operations. As shown in the figure that 65 % of McDonalds restaurants located in United States and Europe generates 75% of revenue. The most important strategic approach of McDonalds for maintaining its leading position in the market has to keep the major markets at the same time they are expanding their business in the emerging markets. Though there are different consumer groups in the different countries having a different tastes and requirements. So each unit of full geographical functions of McDonalds was required to response full for marketing and producing its products in that particular region. Over this regional or geographical structure the McDonalds is not only satisfying the needs of consumer of that or different geographical areas but also tracking a maximum local development. The main strategy of the McDonalds is that they produce and markets the slightly different kinds of products in different geographical areas and even those products have different prices. Jim Skinner the chairm an of McDonalds said once that if you are looking for a command centre with one push button to operate our restaurants in every corner of the world or in the different countries having a different culture you will not find it. Though there is a QSCV-quality service, cleanliness and value philosophy is everywhere. McDonalds is right in understanding the consumer that customer need the fast services, bearable prices and better standard hygiene. In most of the countries McDonalds having a similar product where they provide good services, including beef, chicken and bread potatoes and milk. In different countries consumer having a different taste and requirements and McDonalds time to time launches the new products for their regional customer. Effect of external environment on McDonalds strategies There are two sectors which affects the McDonalds strategies that are competitor and social concept. Competitor: Its unlikely that McDonalds may be at No. 1. In an annual consumer satisfaction survey McDonalds has been listed at last among the fast food restaurants since 1992 and in 4th quarter of 2002 McDonalds had disclosed 1st time its quarterly loss the reason of this is that the consumer has switched to McDonalds competitor i.e. Burger king, subway, etc. These companies focus on offering the fresh and high quality of food at lower price at low price and many fast services. Which resulted that McDonalds has to close its 719 poor performing restaurants around the world? And all these result were proving that McDonalds may not be longer in competition of fast food market. If McDonalds does not adapt the external environment change, they can be diminishing gradually and even it can be replaced by the other competitors. To keep their market share increasing sales and profit McDonalds has to answer the threat of the competitors. In 2003 McDonalds introduce its new product McGriddles sandwiches as a feature of breakfast in US and Canada, and in UK they introduce premier and zesty McChicken and in other countries McDonalds was trying to provide satisfaction to customer by offering premium products at affordable price. Even more McDonalds is providing good choice with respond to Happy Meal for the children. For example Happy Meal is includes chicken selects, do added sugar fruit drink and also to produce coffee to appeal the adults. And those products have been produced to attract existing customer and also to develop new customer. Moreover the McDonalds has innovated its menu and also McDonalds is rebuilding and relocating its restaurants to make environment comfortable to the customer. McDonalds is differentiating itself by creating more relevant experience to attract customers, like they are allowing customers to access internet with the wireless technology. Social problem -healthy issue: As the economy is growing, living standard of people is also increasing. People are now more concerned about their health issues. There is no doubt that McDonalds has made itself more convenient for the customer. Most of the people think that such kind of fast food restaurants are not good for health. WHO report showed that such food not only can cause obesity of children but also the cause of cancer. Issues regarding the health biggest hurdle for the development of McDonalds customer were switching to the healthier competitor like Subway and KFC products. McDonalds has answered to this healthy trend. In order of competition McDonalds has added the salads and other healthier products in their menu. If the any mother comes to the restaurants she will not only find happy meal for her children but also she will find a meal for her also. The lighter and healthier option encourages the existing customer to come back often because there is greater variety of choices. Focus on Children: Different taste and local needs doesnt matters McDonalds has paid its all considerable attention towards children in every country. McDonalds has made happy land for the children offering fantastic happy meal with superb toys to them. And even more McDonalds have just launched the computers with games that are designed for the childrens imagination at the same time they shape their personal features. There are 3 main reasons for McDonalds to focus on the children i.e. McDonalds biggest consumers group are children and McDonalds has been regarded as their favourite place to go. The brand culture happiness is known by the children. The belief of McDonalds on focusing on children is that it can build the stable business and will also provide the best booster to encourage the whole family to come to McDonalds for example McDonalds can offer other products with childrens happy meal to the whole family. By building brand loyalty with children McDonalds is more likely to successful today and in future also. PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT Employees are the important resources of the company. They insures the collaboration of financial, industrial resources so that organisation able to function. Today some of the experienced managers think that the financial reward cannot stay the only type of an employee encouragement or inspiration. There is need of viewing the needs of employees as entity that leads to the search of the non-financial incentives. There are many non-financial incentives connected to employees satisfaction of need for example employees participation in decision making, self-fulfilment, personal growth and others. Full use of human resource by the organisation is the most important advantage which allows the organisation to capture the position in the global market. The McDonalds flourishes owing to the logical combination of the staff into the problem solving. The company follows the principle i.e. the result is done by a man, McDonalds observes its employees as the primary means of achievement in the field of quality and productivity. McDonalds has built its success on the motivation theories having changed only some aspects of them. McDonalds follows four simple principles, which provides the possibility of growth in the performances of its employees: The organisation must innovate the different system of motivation for every department. There must clear and attainable aim for the personnel, its better to have one aim for each person There must be change in aim. Manager must have two aims for the year. For example the first manager inspects the number of employee and clients then the manager inspects the number of returning clients and then the manager should analyse the increase in the sales. This process gives the possibility to find out the qualities and abilities of employees and also to check the new method of work. The rise in salary must be workable for the employee. McDonalds implements three components of the motivation theories i.e. financial incentives, non-financial incentives and social policy. All these three components are mentioned in the Maslows motivation theory. Though Maslow describes that all needs must be one by one. The research of McDonalds and its strategy structure shows that only immediate fulfilments of the employee needs and that will increase the performance of the employees. Its not important to fulfil all the needs of every level. In reality every man has a numbers of needs in every existing moment. McDonalds has an effective motivation system that makes it possible to growth in the performance of the employees and also increases in the companys productivity. McDonalds administration staffs have applied the situational approach which has turned out to be the most relevant to the current condition. The administration department have used the particular techniques on the origin of motivation theories. After applying the assembly line procedure in food preparation McDonalds has ensured the standard quality of production and the high performance. In addition McDonalds has applied actual motivation strategy that is grounded on motivation theories. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION In the above discussion we just come to know about the HR Strategies of the McDonalds the assignment discussed four HR strategies of the McDonalds: Recruitment selection, training, business strategies and management performance system. McDonalds believes that the growth and success of restaurants and company is gained and achieved with the help of their employees. The aim and objective of the McDonalds is to recruit the best people, to maintain them by offering ongoing training appropriate to their position and to promote them when they are ready. The recruitment policies, procedures and practices show the purpose to achieve its aim. It is analyzed there must be some achievement and promotion activities for the crew member as McDonalds has provided to its Business management trainee. If the McDonalds fails to identify the new competitors, interest of consumer shifts, and innovative technologies and social trends then there is a strong possibility of loosing there market share. In 20 03 McDonalds has decided to divert its focus to increase the sales in existing restaurants. To achieve the main objective, McDonalds strategy must attract more new customers and also encourage the present customer to visit restaurants more often, build brand loyalty and eventually create long-term profitable growth for the company.

Essay on the Myths of the African American Woman in Song of Solomon :: Song Solomon essays

Defying the Myths of the African American Woman in Song of Solomon    Throughout slavery, myths were created that tainted the image of the African American woman. These myths promote the misconceptions that African American women are promiscuous and are virtually useless. These myths caused these women to be degraded in the eyes of others as well as themselves. In Toni Morrison's Song of Solomon womanhood is defined in ways that have destroyed these myths. Womanhood is defined according to one's sexuality, spirituality, beauty, identity, relationships, and motherhood.    Song of Solomon begins with one of the most arresting scenes in our century''s literature: a dreamlike tableau depicting a man poised on a roof, about to fly into the air, while cloth rose petals swirl above the snow-covered ground and, in the astonished crowd below, one woman sings as another enters premature labor. The child born of that labor, Macon (Milkman) Dead, will eventually come to discover, through his complicated progress to maturity, the meaning of the drama that marked his birth. Toni Morrison''s novel is a romance of self-discovery, a retelling of the black experience in America that uncovers the inalienable poetry of that experience, and a family saga luminous in its depth, imaginative generosity, and universality. It is also a tribute to the ways in which, in the hands of a master, the ancient art of storytelling can be used to make the mysterious and invisible aspects of human life apparent, real, and firm to the touch.    Milkman's independent aunt, Pilate, serves as the best but not the only example of the retention and use of African ways and culture. Pilate is seen as a conjure woman and this fact is made evident by her unnatural birth and the distinguishing feature of being born without a navel. This sets her apart from the rest of the community giving her almost immediate supernatural status. Not only can she be seen as a conjure women she should also be seen as a keeper of African cultural ways. She proves to be the the strength and preservation of her heritage and culture. Pilate in keeping with the African Spiritual culture seeks to repair the relationship of Macon and Ruth at Ruth's request. So with this knowledge gained from what seems, another world source, Pilate gives to Macon's wife Ruth a greenish powder to put in Macon's food to induce him to become sexually active with Ruth again.

Korean “Comfort Women” of Wwii Essay

â€Å"†¦Use curiosity to ask challenging questions about what appear as normal, everyday banalities in order to try and understand make visible’ the hidden gendering of the practice and theorizing of international relations† –Cynthia Enloe In times of armed conflict, women are most susceptible to violence and silencing through the sexualization, dehumanization, and stigmatization of their identities. Janie Leatherman highlights this point when stating â€Å"gender based violence often intensifies and becomes more extreme in a crisis, even escalating into a tool of war â€Å" (4). This is inevitable in a patriarchal society where hegemonic masculine values construct gender norms and gender expectations. Sexual violence during armed conflict does not develop in isolation from the society’s preexisting socioeconomic and culturally shaped gender relationships. Furthermore, the patriarchal nature of a society does not work alone in creating injustices, such as sexual violence, against women during and after armed conflict; there must be a â€Å"framework that embraces the realities, contradictions, and intersections of various global relations of power† (Kempadoo, 29). These intersections include the relationships between gender, race, class, cultural, and societal ideologies. In my paper, I take on Cynthia Enloe’s challenge of using an enquiring, gendered lens to explore the silencing of women during and after war by examining the case of the Korean ‘comfort women’ of World War II. I will analyze how the intersection of prevailing social determinants and ideologies have regulated and perpetuated the rationale and, thus, the invisibility of the Korean comfort women during and in the aftermath of World War II. Literature Review & Research Methodology Yoshiaki Yoshimi’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II, Margaret Stetz’s Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II, as well as Toshiyuki Tanaka’s Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II were mainly used throughout my research to gather the testimonies of surviving Korean comfort women. All three books give a comprehensive look into the phenomenon of the Japanese military comfort women system with historical background and an abundance of testimonies and documentation of the Korean comfort women. Because my research focuses on the silencing of Korean comfort women during and in the aftermath of World War II, these oral histories provide crucial supporting evidence throughout my paper. Besides two testimonies by one Japanese soldier and one Japanese military doctor, testimonies by other Japanese soldiers and government officials that have acknowledged the existence of the comfort women stations were difficult t o find. Therefore, throughout these testimonies, I specifically looked for patterns that revealed evidence of Japanese gender hierarchies through the diction and accounts that imply any dehumanization and objectification imparted by Japanese soldiers. To investigate the determinants that had cultivated the Japanese comfort station system and, more importantly, the targeting of Korean women for the system, I specifically used Cynthia Enloe’s Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives as well as Janie Leatherman’s Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict. Both authors give insights and analyses of the causes and consequences of sexual violence during armed conflict. They both emphasize the interplay of patriarchal systems, gender constructions/norms, and political/economic/cultural structures as large contributors. In addition to these specific determinants, I incorporate Sara Ahmed’s analysis to sexual violence by considering the â€Å"cultural intersections between gender, race, and colonialism† in my analytical approach (138). By applying and intertwining the critical approaches of Enloe, Leatherman, and Ahmed, I am able to isolate the multifaceted, yet intersecting institutions and ideologies that had fabricated the invisibility of and the rationale for the Korean comfort women. Background of the Japanese Comfort Stations The euphemism ‘comfort women’ was the name assigned to thousands of women –mainly Korean but also Burmese, Chinese, Dutch, Eurasians, Indians, Indonesian, Filipina, and Taiwanese –who were forced into the Japanese comfort station system (Japan’s military controlled whore houses or brothels) throughout World War II (Yoshimi). These so called ‘comfort stations’ were far from comforting. The conditions of the physical spaces have been described as â€Å"barrack-like facilities, rudimentary tents, [or] shacks† (Yoshimi, 25). One Japanese military doctor has testified that the women were treated like â€Å"female ammunition† and that their dehumanized bodies were reduced to the likes of â€Å"public toilets† (Wantabe, 20). The testimony of Hwang Kum-Ju, one of the first Korean comfort women to testify in public, only reveals a glimpse of the sufferings she and fellow comfort women had to endure: â€Å"There were so many soldiers. Sometimes, we had to do it with twenty to thirty soldiers a day. I think ours was the only comfort station in that area, and soldiers and officers came whenever they had some spare moments. Higher-ups came freely, and at night we usually slept with officers. Women who contracted venereal diseases were simply left to die or shot. Anyone resisting the advances was beaten† (Kim, 97). Comfort women were subjected to daily rapes, sexual diseases, torture, murder, and other forms of mental, physical, and sexual violence. The comfort stations were created during World War II as a solution to the aftermath of the Japanese military committing mass murders and rapes as they moved across mainland Asia. The catalyst for the creation of the comfort system was the most infamous massacre known as the â€Å"The Rape of Nanking† in which the whole village of Nanking was murdered after the Japanese soldiers raped approximately 20,000 village women. Because this particular massacre caused such an outcry in the international press, Emperor Hirohito of Japan ordered the creation and systematic expansion of the comfort stations. However, the purpose for which these comfort stations were created was not out of concern for the safety of local women of in the territories in which the Japanese soldiers were stationed. Naoai Murata, the Defense Agency Director of the Secretariat in 1992, claimed that they were created in order to ‘†¦maintain order [and] to ease the anti-Japanese feeling aroused by the Japanese soldier’s deeds’ (Schmidt, 88). This would restore the image of the Imperial Army by confining and concealing rape and sexual violence to military controlled facilities. Additionally, as the war progressed, these comfort stations transformed into spaces that provided opportunities for the Japanese soldiers to have sex as a means of relaxation and comfort, a boost for morale, a space to assert their masculinity, to relieve the stress and fear of combat, and an outlet from strict military discipline (Yoshimi, 53). The following interview of one Japanese soldier highlights the psychological influence and importance of the comfort women to the Japanese soldiers: â€Å"Even though we had just returned from lengthy military operations at the front, the thought of having sex made us leave immediately for the [comfort women]. When we arrived at where the women were, soldiers took their place in line and mulled over life and death while waiting for their turn. There was nothing else like the supreme feeling of completeness that the soldiers experienced when engaging in sex with the women. This was the only way for them to whole-heartedly escape from their abnormal existence† (Yoshimi, 54-55). The advocacy and rationale for the comfort women system reveal the dependency of the military on women. The comfort women system was considered an important element for the war efforts, even if only temporary. Why Korean Comfort Women? Approximately 80% of the 100,000 to 200,000 comfort women were Korean with ages ranging from 13 to mid-20’s (Yoshimi, 67). The question that can be elucidated from this statistic is simple: ‘why were the majority of the comfort women Korean?’ The answer to this question can be answered with: â€Å"†¦the military usually does not need – or want- all women to provide all these militarized services. Rather, government officials have needed women of some classes and some races and some ages to serve some of these functions†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Enloe 2000, 44). Furthermore, in order to further pinpoint the determinants to why this marginalized group was targeted, there needs to be â€Å"an engagement with the interplay of global relations of power around gender, race, nationality, and the economy (Kempadoo, 29). These underlying intertwining ideologies and institutions that have contributed to the explicit targeting of Korean women for the Japanese comfort stat ions need to be explored. Racial Ideologies: Racism The excessive usage of Korean women for the Japanese comfort system is directly linked to the elements of racism. This phenomenon can be analyzed by the intertwined relationship between colonialism, race, socially constructed gender ideologies. As Sara Ahmed emphasizes, â€Å" a consideration of cultural intersections between gender, race, and colonialism is important for two main reasons. First it demands that feminism reject any approach, which isolates the production of gender from race and colonialism. As a result, it requires us to consider how certain feminisms may themselves function as part of the colonialist culture† (138). With this framework in mind, it can be elucidated that the targeting of Korean women stems from the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 from which Korea became a protectorate of Japan and later officially colonized in 1910. Despite the fact that Korea had become a colony under Japan’s rule, the Japanese government and society’s sentiment â€Å"dictated that the [Korean] population was still considered to be racially inferior† (Tanaka, 96). While exploiting and objectifying Korean women, the Japanese military did not see it appropriate to exploit their own women to the same extent: â€Å"[Japanese] officials believed [international] laws were not applicable to Japan’s colonies, and this, combined with the belief in the superiority of Japanese women and the suitability of women of other races for prostitution, cemented to use [Korean] women from the colonies as comfort women† (Tanaka, 97) The Korean comfort women were positioned and identified as ‘uncivilized,’ inferior, subjugated, and promiscuous by the Japanese masculine colonial mindset. Derogatory and sexualized words, accompanied by violence, were used against the Korean comfort women at the comfort stations as racially discriminatory identifiers of the superior and the inferior groups. These words included ‘Ppagayor! Senpino kuseni!’ which translates to ‘Idiot! Nothing but a Korean cunt!’ (Yoshimi, 113). Enloe explains that objectifying foreign women makes it easier for military officials to marginalize them: â€Å"it was far easier for commanders to send women if they could be portrayed as rootless, promiscuous, parasitic, and generally a drag on the military’s discipline and battle readiness† (2000, 40). The images inscribed on the inferior, ‘colonized’ Korean comfort women rose from the colonialist, racial, and masculine institutions. The importance of the intersection of these institutions is emphasized by Kempadoo â€Å"a large number of women upon whose bodies and labor such constructions of masculinity depend are of nations, races, and ethnicities other than those of men is a reality that cannot be neglected or ignore† (31). These constructions of the Korean comfort women’s identities fabricated a justification that only naturalized the Japanese nation’s domination over Korean through the Korean comfort women. Gender Ideologies: Sexualized Femininity/Militarized Masculinity During World War II, the prominently patriarchal nature of the Japanese society reestablished the preexisting gendered, dichotomous construction of sexuality for both men and women in which the degree of masculinity of soldiers was greatly dependent on the comfort women. Cynthia Enloe highlights this notion by recognizing that â€Å"the women were one of the strengths, which maintained the military organization† (Enloe 1988, 187). Enloe draws attention to this dependency by stating ‘the military needs women as the gender ‘women’ to provide men with masculinity –reinforcing incentives to endure all the hardships of soldiering (Enloe 1988, 214). During World War II, within the Japanese military, there were socially constructed forms of masculinity and femininity that were reinforced by the onset of war and the military. The service of and dependency on the objectified women’s body s tems from what Carole Vance explains to be social constructions of gender and sexuality, not as â€Å"natural† and â€Å"unchanging† biologically determined notions of gender and sexuality. Socially constructed gender roles have shaped â€Å"sexuality as a form of power† (Mackinnon, 2). Catherine Mackinnon further describes these powerful gender roles: â€Å"the social beings we know as man and woman are bound by social requirements of heterosexuality, which institutionalizes male sexual domination and female sexual submission† The woman’s identity becomes inexplicably attached to her sexuality, becoming â€Å"that which is most of her own, yet is most taken away† (Tong, 111). Sexuality becomes distorted into an ideal of sexuality that reduces women to sexual objects while placing men as the dominating, sexual subject. The highly hierarchical gender system of Japan during World War II fostered an inequality between men and women in which â€Å"men create the demand and women are the supply† (Hughes, 11). The objectification of the Korean women was necessary for the militarization of men. (Enloe 2000). During times of war, the ideologies of masculinity that â€Å"their love and respect can only be met by being masculine, powerful, and ult imately violent† are fuelled (Kokopeli, 233). This is because the military as a social institution is constructed by ideals of male sexuality. The sexualization of the female body aids the military in the marginalization of women as it depicts women as objects and tools for the soldier’s sexual satisfaction. Vance states that all â€Å"social construction approaches adopt the view that physically identical sexual acts may have varying social significance and subjective meaning depends on how they are defined and understood in different cultures and historical periods† (29). Militarized masculinities are sexualized in violent forms, which was clearly the case among the Japanese soldiers. The socially constructed feminine identity at the time was one of which sexuality was merely designed to service individual men and male defined institutions. This explanation creates a foundation for the upheld rigid distinctions between masculine and feminine ideals in the Japanese society during World War II. For the Japanese male soldiers, the militarized masculine model of sexuality embodied notions of dominance, destructi on, aggression, and sexual conquest. On the other hand, the Korean comfort women subjected to this patriarchal society were merely reduced to submissive, obedient, and sexual tools. Enloe also argues that wartime sexual violence provides ‘masculinity-reinforcing incentives to endure all the hardships of soldiering’ (1988, 214). The practice of going to the comfort stations to have sex with the comfort women became a routine for the Japanese soldiers; the women were seen as a â€Å"necessary evil† (Tanaka, 67). Whereas on the battlefield, the Japanese soldiers had little control, having sex with women against their will gave the men the masculine power of dominance and self-assertion. In battle, Japanese soldiers were merely seen as military ammunition for combat, but they were able to reinforce their own masculine subjectivity and agency through the sexual objectification of Korean comfort women. This can be comprehended through the account of one Korean comfort woman, Yi Sunok: â€Å"There were many times when I was almost killed. If I refused to do what one man asked, he would come back drunk and threaten me with his sword. Others simply arrived drunk, and had intercourse with their swords stuck in the tatami. This left the tatami scarred, but this sort of behavior was more of a threat to make me accede to their desires and give them satisfaction† (Tanaka, 56). The Korean comfort women provided an environment where the men could reinforce militarized masculine at the expense of the women’s dehumanization as well as their mental and physical health. The Korean comfort women not only suffered enforced sex, but sex routinely accompanied by routine violence and torture. Although the comfort women station system was blatant throughout World War II, it was rationalized by socially constructed, yet biologically justified, notions of male sexuality. Vance would call this justification as â€Å"biological determinism,† which is the belief that biology determines fundamentally all behavior and actions. The belief that the comfort women were needed because of the male Japanese soldiers’ biologically determined, uncontrollable sexual needs can be perceived in the secret report by a psychiatrist of the Konodai army hospital in 1939: â€Å"The army authorities established comfort stations†¦because they assumed that it was impossible to suppress the sexual urge of soldiers. The main purposes of setting up comfort facilities were to relieve soldiers of daily stresses by giving them a sense of sexual satisfaction and to prevent rapes which would damage the reputation of the Imperial army from happening† (Yoshimi, 1992, 228). This understanding of male sexuality inadvertently reduces the rationale for the comfort station system to a biological one. It justifies the creation of the comfort women system as unavoidable and inevitable as though there was no other solution. The biological determinism argument is a legitimizing tool for it positions this constructed masculinity as outside of human control. The trope of ‘uncontrollable military male sexuality’ rooted in the ‘nature’ rationale only suspends moral and legal restrains on the comfort women system while perpetuating and justifying the women’s objectified, subordinate position. Socioeconomic Status The majority of the Korean women that were targeted in the comfort station system were from a low socioeconomic class. Hughes reiterates this point by pointing out that recruiters of areas in the sex industry â€Å"take advantage of poverty, unemployment and a desire to emigrate to recruit and traffic women into the sex industry† (11). Hughes also includes a report from the Women’s NGO which states, â€Å"†¦economic hard times has lead to a depression of women’s psychological state with a loss of self esteem and hope for the future. Women accept unlikely offers of employment in unskilled jobs at high salaries with the resignation that ‘it cannot be worse’ than their present lives. Recruiters for the sex industry target the most economically depresses areas† (12). The Korean women of low economic status and class were vulnerable to the deceitful recruitment methods of the Japanese. For example, the Korean population in the Japanese colonized territories was very poor during World War II because Japan had taken any available means of production of food and clothes for the war effort (Argibay, 378). This left most of the young Korean women and girls living in poverty and starting menial labor at a very early age in order to support their families. ‘Recruiters’ would encourage compliance by convincing the women that they would obtain high paid jobs as seamstresses and nurses or working in a hospital or a factory (Stetz, 10). One comfort women named Suntok Kim recalls that when she was being ‘recruited,’ the prospects of being a ‘comfort woman’ for the Japanese seemed promising because she came from a poor family and had no education. Working in a factory was far better than her current working and living conditions (Stetz, 10). Furthermore, the U.S. Office of War Interrogation Report No. 49 reports that when being recruited â€Å"Korean women assumed that comfort service consisted of visiting wounded soldiers and generally making the soldiers happy, and that many Korean women enlisted on the basis of these misrepresentations† (Arigbay , 378) Another means of recruitment that targeted Koreans of low socioeconomic class was through the method of debt bondage, indenturing the Korean comfort women to the Japanese military. Economically destitute rural families were deceived into thinking that they had a choice of whether or not to sell their daughters to the Japanese military; however, in reality, they were being coerced with violence and had no agency in this matter. Many reports have indicated that families who refused to sell their daughters were killed and girls taken to the Japanese military bases after. The Japanese would also threaten to destroy â€Å"the whole village, kill the elders and children and commit other violent measures† (Arigbay, 278). Many Korean comfort women did not have the agency, autonomy, or the economic option to oppose Japanese forces. Offering a payment was simply a customary ruse by the Japanese military to justify their methods in taking these powerless Korean women. Continuum of Injustice & Invisibility in the Aftermath Stigmatization: Cultural & Social Institutions In the aftermath of World War II, the experiences of the comfort women were silenced for approximately 50 years. This silence was finally broken in the early 1990s when the issue was brought to light as former comfort women began to release their testimonies to the public. When this issue began to gain public attention, the Japanese government immediately declared that the comfort women system did not exist in the Japanese military and thus â€Å"there could be no question of any apology, memorial, or disclosures by the Japanese government† (Uncomfortable Truths). To this day, comfort women are still waiting for an apology for the violation of their human rights and for the objectification of their bodies and identities from the Japanese government. Many grassroots organizations and feminist groups have been created since the early 1990s to draw attention to issue of the comfort women. These include the Korean Research Institute for Chongsindae and the Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Sexual Slavery by Japan. Since the early 1990s over one hundred women in South Korea have registered with the Korean government as former comfort women (Kim, 74). However, despite these efforts, the stark question of ‘why’ the surviving Korean comfort women were silenced for so long still remains. The surviving women have not only suffered from mental and physical injuries, but also had to suffer from additional social injuries. Many of the surviving Korean comfort women have had to live a stigmatized and isolated life as they tried to assimilate back into the communities. They were â€Å"condemned to live out their lives as social, pariahs, shunned by their families, tortured by injury and illness, some sent mad by their ordeal†¦some committed suicide, others became insane† (Askin, 13). This stigmatization can be attributed to the Confucian societies in Korea for the Korean comfort women were products of this culture. The Confucian definition of the traditional feminine identity highlights docility and emphasizes chastity as a woman’s most important virtue (Stetz, 13). As Iris Chang reiterates: â€Å"Asian Confucianism-particularly Korean Confucianism- upheld female purity as a virtue greater than life and perpetuated the belief that any woman who could live through such a degrading experience and not commit suicide was herself an affront to society] This cultural ideology demanded that unmarried women must be virgins and blamed the women for not being able to prevent any forms of sexual violation (53). With high moral value attached to chastity and purity, the comfort women â€Å"invariably emerged from their wartime experiences defiled, yet unable to accuse their abusers† (Askin, 25). The fear of isolation and stigma from their defilement only silenced them, leaving these sexual atrocities in the dark for 50 years. The internalization of this feminine identity caused Korean comfort women to lose self-respect, to live in shame, and ultimately perpetuate their own stigmatization. Furthermore, the social stigma and shame attached to rape and sex were fostered by Korean society and the Korean comfort women’s own families. Patty Kelly explains this stigma as â€Å"a blemish of individual character that [the] women cannot escape†¦the stigmatized person is perceived as possessing weak will, unnatural passions, and treacherous beliefs† (192). The stigma of rape and sex embody has implications on community, family, and responsibility. Kelly asserts that stigma associated with sex work â€Å"circumscribes one’s social relations†¦causes fear and shame†¦creates inauthenticity in daily life† (194). Keith Howard describes the lives that the surviving Korean comfort women had to endure in their communities: â€Å"When they returned to Korea†¦they were neither faithful nor chaste. They were not exemplary women. The families of the comfort women feared the ostracism they would suffer if the shameful past were discovered; the women became an extra burden, and there was little chance to marry them off† (7). This social stigma and discrimination oppressed the surviving Korean comfort women. As Kelly points out, social relations with the family were tainted. Some of the Korean comfort women were seen as a disgrace to their family by their own family and by the rest of society. One Korean comfort woman by the name of Tokchin Kim has revealed that the honor of her family and the relationship with her family hindered her from publicizing her experience, which only allowed the comfort station system to remain invisible. Tokchin Kim had tried to register at the Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan as a former comfort woman. However, her nephew expressed â€Å"You will only bring trouble on your family and your children will be traumatized† (Yoshimi, 4 9). Because of the stigmatization, humiliation, and disgrace that inevitably arose from their past as comfort women, the Korean comfort women’s experiences had unjustly remained hidden for an inordinate amount of time. Conclusion The Japanese comfort stations during World War II completely disregarded comfort women’s rights and silenced their past as a product of the rationale for the system. Leatherman explicates that the silences and justifications â€Å"undergird[ed] the economic, social, cultural, and political power structures of patriarchy. Patriarchy is a hierarchal social order centered on dominant or hegemonic forms of masculinity† (4). The justifications and invisibility stem from the intersection of socially constructed gender, cultural, racial, and socioeconomic institutions. Comfort women have had to unjustly bear the â€Å"shame, ostracism, and dishonor that should be imputed to the perpetrator of sexual violence† (Askin, 31). There has been a continuum of this disregard into the present day as the Japanese government has failed to give an official apology for their wartime atrocities after 50 years of ignoring the existence of comfort women. This untiring neglect reproduces injustice and invisibility of the comfort women to this day. As of right now, there are only 63 registered Korean comfort women in South Korea waiting out their last years to be fully recognized as comfort women by the Japanese government. In order for there to be any strides in this movement, it is imperative that the social and gender hierarchies encumbering Japanese and Korean societies be deconstructed and reevaluated. Additionally, the vast gap between the value of the female and male’s experience and rights in the patriarchal nature of Japan’s society needs to be closed. Bibliography Ahmed, Sara. â€Å"Construction of Women And/in the Orient.† Women, Power, and Resistance: An Introduction to Women’s Studies. By Tess Cosslett, Alison Easton, and Penny Summerfield. Buckingham [England: Open UP, 1996. 225-32. Print. Argibay, Carmen M. â€Å"Sexual Slavery and the â€Å"Comfort Women† of World War II.† Berkeley Journal of International Law 21.375 (n.d.): 375-89. Print. Askin, Kelly D. â€Å"Comfort Women- Shifting Shame and Stigma from Victims to Victimizers.† International Criminal Law Review 1 (2001): 5-32. Print. Chang, Iris. â€Å"The Rape of Nanking.† The Law of War, a Documentary History. By Leon Friedman. New York: Random House, 1972. N. pag. Print. Enloe, Cynthia H. Bananas, Beaches & Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics. Berkeley: University of California, 1988. Print Enloe, Cynthia H. Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives. Berkeley: University of California, 2000. Print. Howard, Keith, and Young Joo. Lee. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women. N.p.: Cassell, 1995. Print. 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By Inderpal Grewal and Caren Kaplan. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2006. 29-32. Print. Varga, Aniko. â€Å"National Bodies: The ‘Comfort Women’ Discourse and Its Controversies in South Korea.† Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 9.2 (2009): n. pag. Print. Watanabe, Kazuko. â€Å"Trafficking in Women’s Bodies: Then and Now: The Issue of Military â€Å"Comfort Women†Ã¢â‚¬  Peace & Change 20.4 (1995): 501-14. Print. Yang, Hyunah. â€Å"Finding the â€Å"Map of Memory†: Testimony of the Japanese Military Sexual Slavery Survivors.† Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 16.1 (2008): 79-107. Print. Yoshimi, Yoshiaki, and Suzanne O’Brien. Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II. New York: Columbia UP, 2000. Print.

Why the Book Was Written

Thesis: Elizabeth Johnson wrote the book â€Å"Consider Jesus Waves of Renewal in Christology† because she wanted to present the changes happening in Christology. Elizabeth Johnson's book, Consider Jesus: Waves of Renewal in Christology book is ordered according to various â€Å"waves† in 20th century Catholic Christology, using these movements as starting points to discuss various areas of historical theology as well. This is based on an historical overview that interprets the history of Catholic Christology as that of a living tradition, always developing in new directions.Chapter six, on liberation Christology, Johnson uses this opportunity to portray the â€Å"either-or† aspect of the person of Jesus, making it clear that the historical Jesus was neither merely a wise sage nor merely a god in heaven . When it comes to the situation of the poor, she says, â€Å"neutrality is not possible† (94), particularly since Jesus is the liberator of the poor, as h e said when he began his ministry.Johnson goes into the area of theology on which she has had the most influence, feminist theology In addition, she points out that during Jesus’ ministry, especially during the crucifixion and resurrection, women acted as faithful apostles in ways that men often did not. In her preface she states â€Å"the purpose was to present the fundamental rethinking taking place in Christology to persons who are actively involved in ministries in the church or who are seeking greater understanding of their faith. † based on this statement I think her purpose for writing this book is to help give believers an open mind in the different areas of Christology.